Anti-ChiÂnese racism runs deep in AmerÂiÂcan culÂture and law, beginÂning in the 19th cenÂtuÂry as comÂpeÂtiÂtion intenÂsiÂfied in CalÂiÂforÂnia gold and land rushÂes. ChiÂnese immiÂgrants were pushed into teemÂing cities, then denÂiÂgratÂed for surÂvivÂing in overÂcrowdÂed slums. To get a sense of the scope of the prejÂuÂdice, we need only conÂsidÂer the 1882 law known as the ChiÂnese ExcluÂsion Act — the only legÂisÂlaÂtion passed to explicÂitÂly restrict immiÂgraÂtion by one ethÂnic or nationÂal group. The law actuÂalÂly goes back to 1875, when the Page Act banned ChiÂnese women from immiÂgratÂing. It was only repealed in 1943.
Although rouÂtineÂly evadÂed, the severe restricÂtions and outÂright bans on ChiÂnese immiÂgraÂtion under the ExcluÂsion Act drove and were driÂven by racist ideas still visÂiÂble today in tropes of danÂgerÂous, exotiÂcized “dragÂon ladies” or sexÂuÂalÂly subÂmisÂsive conÂcuÂbines: roles givÂen in earÂly HolÂlyÂwood films to the first ChiÂnese-AmerÂiÂcan movie star, Anna May Wong, who, after 1909 — despite being the most recÂogÂnizÂable ChiÂnese-AmerÂiÂcan in the world — had to carÂry idenÂtiÂfiÂcaÂtion at all times to prove her legal staÂtus.
Wong was born in Los AngeÂles, a city that — like every othÂer major metropÂoÂlis — became home to its own ChiÂnaÂtown, and a famous one at that. But the most famous of the segÂreÂgatÂed urban areas origÂiÂnatÂed in San FranÂcisÂco, after the 1906 earthÂquake that nearÂly levÂeled the city and “came on the heels of decades of vioÂlence and racist laws tarÂgetÂing ChiÂnese comÂmuÂniÂties in the US,” notes Vox. “The earthÂquake devÂasÂtatÂed ChiÂnaÂtown. But in the destrucÂtion, San Francisco’s ChiÂnese busiÂnessÂmen had an idea for a fresh start” that would define the look of ChiÂnaÂtowns worldÂwide.
The new ChiÂnaÂtown was more than a new start; it was surÂvival. As often hapÂpens after disÂasÂters, proÂposÂals for reloÂcatÂing the unpopÂuÂlar immiÂgrant neighÂborÂhood appeared “before the dust had setÂtled and smoke cleared,” notes 99 PerÂcent InvisÂiÂble. “The city’s mayÂor comÂmisÂsioned archiÂtect and urban designÂer Daniel BurnÂham to draw up plans aligned with the City BeauÂtiÂful moveÂment.” FeelÂing they had to cater to white AmerÂiÂcan stereoÂtypes to gain accepÂtance, ChiÂnese-AmerÂiÂcan busiÂness leadÂers “hired archiÂtect T. PaterÂson Ross and engiÂneer A.W. BurÂgren to rebuild—even though neiÂther man had been to ChiÂna.”
The archiÂtects “relied on cenÂturies-old images, priÂmarÂiÂly of reliÂgious verÂnacÂuÂlar, to develÂop the look of the new ChiÂnaÂtown,” and the result was to creÂate a genÂuine tourist attracÂtion — an “iconÂic look,” the Vox MissÂing ChapÂter video explains, that bears litÂtle resemÂblance to actuÂal ChiÂnese cities. The ChiÂnese immiÂgrant comÂmuÂniÂty in San FranÂcisÂco “kept their culÂture alive by inventÂing a new one,” a delibÂerÂate co-optaÂtion of OriÂenÂtalÂist stereoÂtypes for a city, its merÂchants decidÂed, that would be built of “verÂiÂtaÂble fairy palaces.”
The New ChiÂnaÂtown was “not quite ChiÂnese, not quite AmerÂiÂcan”; safe for midÂdle-class tourism and conÂsumpÂtion and safer for ChiÂnese busiÂnessÂes to flourÂish. The modÂel spread rapidÂly. Now, in whatÂevÂer major city we might might visÂit — outÂside of ChiÂna, that is — the ChiÂnaÂtown we encounter is both a unique culÂturÂal hybrid and a marÂketÂing triÂumph that offered a meaÂsure of proÂtecÂtion to beleaÂguered ChiÂnese immiÂgrant comÂmuÂniÂties around the world.
RelatÂed ConÂtent:
Learn the Untold HisÂtoÂry of the ChiÂnese ComÂmuÂniÂty in the MisÂsisÂsipÂpi Delta
The UtopiÂan, SocialÂist Designs of SoviÂet Cities
Josh Jones is a writer and musiÂcian based in Durham, NC. FolÂlow him at @jdmagness
AmazÂing how the resilience and creÂativÂiÂty of a comÂmuÂniÂty can reshape entire cityscapes. ChiÂnaÂtowns truÂly stand as tesÂtaÂments to surÂvival and adapÂtaÂtion.